Blood Bank

For the Bon Iver release, see Blood Bank (EP).

A blood bank is a cache or bank of blood or blood components, gathered as a result of blood donation or collection, stored and preserved for later use in blood transfusion. The term "blood bank" typically refers to a division of a hospital where the storage of blood product occurs and where proper testing is performed (to reduce the risk of transfusion related adverse events). However, it sometimes refers to a collection center, and indeed some hospitals also perform collection.

Collection and processing

In the U.S., certain standards are set for the collection and processing of each blood product. "Whole blood" (WB) is the proper name for one defined product, specifically unseparated venous blood with an approved preservative added. Most blood for transfusion is collected as whole blood. Autologous donations are sometimes transfused without further modification, however whole blood is typically separated (via centrifugation) into its components, with red blood cells (RBC) in solution being the most commonly used product. Units of WB and RBC are both kept refrigerated at 33.8-42.8 F (1-6 C), with maximum permitted storage periods (shelf lives) of 35 and 42 days respectively. Red Blood Cell (RBC) units can also be frozen when buffered with glycerol, but this is an expensive and time consuming process, and is rarely done. Frozen red cells are given an expiration date of up to 10 years and are stored at -85F (-65C).^{[citation needed]}

The less-dense blood plasma is made into a variety of frozen components, and is labeled differently based on when it was frozen and what the intended use of the product is. If the plasma is frozen promptly and is intended for transfusion, it is typically labeled as fresh frozen plasma. If it is intended to be made into other products, it is typically labeled as recovered plasma or plasma for fractionation.Cryoprecipitate can be made from other plasma components. These components must be stored at -0F (-17.7C) or colder, but are typically stored at -22F (-30C). The layer between the red cells and the plasma is referred to as the buffy coat and is sometimes removed to make platelets for transfusion. Platelets are typically pooled before transfusion and have a shelf life of 5–7 days, or 3 days once the facility that collected them has completed their tests. Platelets are stored at room temperature (72F=22.2C) and must be rocked/agitated. Since they are stored at room temperature in nutritive solutions, they are at relatively high risk for growing bacteria.

Some blood banks also collect products by apheresis. The most common component collected is plasma via plasmapheresis, but red blood cells and platelets can be collected by similar methods. These products generally have the same shelf life and storage conditions as their conventionally-produced counterparts.

Donors are sometimes paid; in the U.S. and Europe, most blood for transfusion is collected from volunteers while plasma for other purposes may be from paid donors.

Most collection facilities as well as hospital blood banks also perform testing to determine the blood type of patients and to identify compatible blood products, along with a battery of tests (e.g. disease) and treatments (e.g. leukocyte filtration) to ensure or enhance quality. The increasingly recognized problem of inadequate efficacy of transfusion^[1] is also raising the profile of RBC viability and quality. Notably, U.S. hospitals spend more on dealing with the consequences of transfusion-related complications than on the combined costs of buying, testing/treating, and transfusing their blood.^[2]

Storage and management

Routine blood storage is 42 days or 6 weeks for stored packed red blood cells (also called "StRBC" or "pRBC"), by far the most commonly transfused blood product, and involves refrigeration but usually not freezing. There has been increasing controversy about whether a given product unit's age is a factor in transfusion efficacy, specifically on whether "older" blood directly or indirectly increases risks of complications.^[3][4] Studies have not been consistent on answering this question,^[5] with some showing that older blood is indeed less effective but with others showing no such difference; nevertheless, as storage time remains the only available way to estimate quality status or loss, a first-in-first-out inventory management approach is standard presently.^[6] It is also important to consider that there is large variability in storage results for different donors, which combined with limited available quality testing, poses challenges to clinicians and regulators seeking reliable indicators of quality for blood products and storage systems.^[7]

Transfusions of platelets are comparatively far less numerous, but they present unique storage/management issues. Platelets may only be stored for 7 days,^[8] due largely to their greater potential for contamination, which is in turn due largely to a higher storage temperature.

RBC storage lesion

Insufficient transfusion efficacy can result from red blood cell (RBC) blood product units damaged by so-called storage lesion - a set of biochemical and biomechanical changes which occur during storage. With red cells, this can decrease viability and ability for tissue oxygenation.^[9] Although some of the biochemical changes are reversible after the blood is transfused,^[10] the biomechanical changes are less so,^[11] and rejuvenation products are not yet able to adequately reverse this phenomenon.^[12]

Current regulatory measures are in place to minimize RBC storage lesion - including a maximum shelf life (currently 42 days), a maximum auto-hemolysis threshold (currently 1% in the US), and a minimum level of post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo (currently 75% after 24 hours).^[13] However, all of these criteria are applied in a universal manner that does not account for differences among units of product;^[14] for example, testing for the post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo is done on a sample of healthy volunteers, and then compliance is presumed for all RBC units based on universal (GMP) processing standards. (Of course, RBC survival does not guarantee efficacy, but it is a necessary prerequisite for cell function, and hence serves as a regulatory proxy.) Opinions vary as to the "best" way to determine transfusion efficacy in a patient in vivo.^[15] In general, there are not yet any in vitro tests to assess quality deterioration or preservation for specific units of RBC blood product prior to their transfusion, though there is exploration of potentially relevant tests based on RBC membrane properties such as erythrocyte deformability^[16] and erythrocyte fragility (mechanical).^[17]

Many physicians have adopted a so-called "restrictive protocol" - whereby transfusion is held to a minimum - due in part to the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions,^[18] along with the increasing view that many transfusions are inappropriate or use too many RBC units.^[19][20]

Platelet storage lesion

Platelet storage lesion is a very different phenomenon from RBC storage lesion, due largely to the different functions of the products and purposes of the respective transfusions, along with different processing issues and inventory management considerations.^[21]

Alternative inventory/release practices

Although as noted the primary inventory-management approach is FIFO to minimize product expiration, there are some deviations from this policy - both in current practice as well as under research. For example, exchange transfusion of RBC in neonates calls for use of blood product that is 5 days old or less, to "ensure" optimal cell function.^[22] Also, some hospital blood banks will attempt to accommodate physicians' requests to provide low-aged RBC product for certain kinds of patients (e.g. cardiac surgery).^[23]

More recently, novel approaches are being explored to complement or replace FIFO. One is to balance the desire to reduce average product age (at transfusion) with the need to maintain sufficient availability of non-outdated product, leading to a strategic blend of FIFO with LIFO (last-in-first-out).^[24]

Long-term storage

"Long-term" storage for all blood products is relatively uncommon, compared to routine/short-term storage. Cryopreservation of red blood cells is done to store rare units for up to 10 years.^[25] The cells are incubated in a glycerol solution which acts as acryoprotectant ("antifreeze") within the cells. The units are then placed in special sterile containers in a freezer at very cold temperatures. The exact temperature depends on the glycerol concentration.

An early development leading to the establishment of blood banks occurred in 1915, when Richard Lewison of Mount Sinai Hospital inNew York City initiated the use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant. This discovery transformed the blood transfusion procedure from direct (vein-to-vein) to indirect. In the same year, Richard Weil demonstrated the feasibility of refrigerated storage of anticoagulated blood. The introduction of a citrate-glucose solution by Francis Peyton Rous and JR Turner two years later permitted storage of blood in containers for several days, thus opening the way for the first "blood depot" established in Britain during World War I.

Blood donation at the Royal Melbourne Hospital during the 1940s.

In Russia Sergei Yudin pioneered the transfusion of cadaveric blood and performed this successfully for the first time on March 23, 1930. Also in 1930 Yudin organized the world's first blood bank at the Nikolay Sklifosovskiy Institute, which set an example for the establishment of further blood banks in different regions of the Soviet Union and in other countries. By the mid-1930s the Soviet Union had set up a system of at least sixty five large blood centers and more than 500 subsidiary ones, all storing "canned" blood and shipping it to all corners of the country.

News of the Soviet experience traveled to the United States, where in 1937 Bernard Fantus, director of therapeutics at the Cook County Hospital in Chicago, established the first hospital blood bank in the United States.^[26] In creating a hospital laboratory that preserved and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term "blood bank." Within a few years, hospital and community blood banks were established across the United States. Willem Johan Kolfforganised the first blood bank in Europe (in 1940).

In 1939 Charles R. Drew researched in the field of blood transfusions, developing improved techniques for blood storage, and applied his expert knowledge in developing large-scale blood banks early in World War II. Oswald Hope Robertson, a medical researcher and U.S. Army officer who established the depots, is often regarded as the creator of the first blood bank. The University of Louisville is also credited for the Blood Bank.

An important breakthrough came in 1939-40 when Karl Landsteiner, Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the Rh blood group system, which was found to be the cause of the majority of transfusion reactions up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by J.F. Loutit and Patrick L. Mollison of acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD) solution, which reduces the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer term storage.

Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy, Jr., introduced the plastic bag for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable glass bottles with durable plastic bags allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of Whole Blood.

An anticoagulant preservative, CPDA-1 was introduced in 1979. It decreased wastage from expiration and facilitated resource sharing among blood banks. Newer solutions contain adenine.

Notes

1. ^ Marik PE, Corwin HL. Efficacy of red blood cell transfusion in the critically ill: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Care Med 2008; 36:2667-2674.
2. ^ Shander A, Hofmann A, Gombotz H, Theusinger OM, Spahn DR. Estimating the cost of blood: past, present, and future directions. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2007; 21:271-289.
3. ^ http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/11/the-shelf-life-of-donor-blood/
4. ^ Wang, Shirley S. (2009-12-01). "What's the Shelf Life of Blood?". The Wall Street Journal.
5. ^ http://www.annalsofintensivecare.com/content/3/1/2
6. ^ http://www.healthleadersmedia.com/page-2/QUA-289788/Bloods-Shelf-Life-May-Be-as-Short-as-3-Weeks
7. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22229278
8. ^ http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/ac/02/briefing/3839b2_02_platelets.htm
9. ^ Zubair AC: Clinical impact of blood storage lesions. Am J Hematol; 2010; 85: 117-22.
10. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2492818
11. ^ Decreased Erythrocyte Deformability After Transfusion and the Effects of Erythrocyte Storage Duration Anesth Analg ANE.0b013e31828843e6; published ahead of print February 28, 2013.
12. ^ http://www.isb-isch2012.org/Poster/P32.htm
13. ^ http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/content/115/21/4284.long
14. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22229278
15. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782802/
16. ^ Transfusion. 2012 May;52(5):1010-23. Artificial microvascular network: a new tool for measuring rheologic properties of stored red blood cells. Burns JM, Yang X, Forouzan O, Sosa JM, Shevkoplyas SS.
17. ^ Vox Sang. 2010 Nov;99(4):325-31. The use of the mechanical fragility test in evaluating sublethal RBC injury during storage.
18. ^ Shander A, Hofmann A, Gombotz H, Theusinger OM, Spahn DR: Estimating the cost of blood: past, present, and future directions. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol; 2007; 21: 271-89.
19. ^ http://www.patientsafetysummit.org/_assets/documents/Action%20Plan%20-%20RBC%20Overuse%20-%20January%2013,%202013.pdf
20. ^ http://www.cap.org/apps/cap.portal?_nfpb=true&cntvwrPtlt_actionOverride=%2Fportlets%2FcontentViewer%2Fshow&_windowLabel=cntvwrPtlt&cntvwrPtlt{actionForm.contentReference}=cap_today%2F0409%2F0409d_easy_does_it.html&_state=maximized&_pageLabel=cntvwr
21. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20513565
22. ^ http://www.imj.ie/Archive/IMJ%20June%2007%20Supplement.pdf
23. ^ Handbook of Pediatric Transfusion Medicine, edited by Ronald Strauss, Naomi Luban; Ch. 2, p. 12.
24. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21756261
25. ^ "Circular of Information for the use of Human Blood and Blood Components". AABB, ARC, America's Blood Centers. pp. page 16. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
26. ^ Morris Fishbein, M.D., ed. (1976). "Blood Banks". The New Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia 1 (Home Library Edition ed.). New York, N.Y. 10016: H. S. Stuttman Co. p. 220.

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